This study explored the viability of tablet computers in early education by investigating preschool children’s ease in acclimating to tablet technology and its effectiveness in engaging them to draw. A total of 41 three- to six-yearold children were videotaped while they used the tablets. The study found significant differences in level of tablet use between sessions, and engagement increased with age. Teachers reported high child interest and drawings as typical to above expectation. Children quickly developed ease with the stylus for drawing. Although technical issues in learning this new technology were encountered, children were interested and persisted without frustration. What seems to matter for children’s learning is the ways teachers choose to implement this technology. (Keywords: technology and young children, tablet computers, computers and early education, pentop computing)
Technology is increasingly recognized as an integral learning tool for promoting the social, linguistic, and cognitive development of young children (Gimbert & Cristol, 2004; Information Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2007; National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1996). Today, the question that educators ask is no longer about whether and to what extent technology should be used with young children in the classroom, but rather how it should be used (Clements & Sarama, 2003). Keeping up with new technologies for the classroom
presents an ongoing challenge for educators (Clements & Sarama, 2002) as they recognize the ever developing potential of technologies to enhance the ability of children to learn, problem solve, and convey their ideas. One of the key questions for teachers to consider is the role of new technology in the curriculum (Swaminathan & Wright, 2003). We explored the question: Can stylus-interfaced technology in tablet computers be used with young children to implement preschool curriculum?
The Context of Technology in Early Childhood
Early childhood is the period of life from birth through age 8 years (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), when growth and development is rapid. During that time, many children attend preschool, where they have access to technology as a learning tool. Accrediting bodies in teacher education (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education [NCATE], 2008), as well as researchers and educators in the field of early childhood education (ISTE, 2007; NAEYC, 1996), highlight the importance of the children’s active use of technology in making decisions, technology resources in writing and drawing, and logical thinking programs to solve problems and illustrate ideas. Children’s active use of computers in the classroom means that they must not be in control only of the operation of the computer, but also of the software they are using. Swaminathan and Wright (2003) indicate that a key question in evaluating technology is: Who does the thinking? Technology that encourages children’s thinking affords them opportunities for active control and problem solving while providing teachers with a window into children’s development.
In their review of the literature, Vernadakis, Avgerinos, Tsitskari, and Zachopoulou (2005) indicated that computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in preschool holds much promise as the technology becomes more accessible. CAI offers pictures and sounds to support the natural ways that young children learn. Engagement in the learning process is directly linked to motivation, as illustrated in Haugland’s study (1999), which found the motivation of kindergarten and primary-aged children increased when academic instruction was paired with the use of computers. Handwriting, an early academic task, can be a challenging and often arduous process for children due to developing fine-motor skills. For this reason, motivation is a crucial factor to engaging children in the writing process. Further, Arrowood and Overall (2004) found that using computers improved the motivation of young elementary children in the writing process. Guthrie and Richardson (1995) as well as Talley, Lance, and Lee (1997) found that children were intrinsically motivated to use computers, as evidenced by the fact that they spent a longer time and had more focused sessions at the computer compared with noncomputer- related activities. Other studies reach similar conclusions, reporting that the motivation and engagement of kindergarten and primary-aged
children in learning increased through the use of computers compared with non-computer-related learning activities (Chung & Walsh, 2006; Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997; Schmid, Miodrag, & DiFrancesco, 2008).
Although some have argued against the use of computer technology for young children’s learning (Cordes & Miller, 2000), the effects of technology in educational settings on the development of young children have been widely documented and strongly positive. For example, children who use computers have been found to show greater gains in intelligence, structural knowledge, problem solving, and language skills compared with those who do not use technology in their learning (Clements & Samara, 2003; Haugland, 1999; Swaminathan & Wright, 2003; Vernadakis et al., 2005). The challenge in early education then becomes discovering new ways to more fully integrate technology into the curriculum to encourage the active engagement and thinking of young children.
Active learning in preschool.
In the preschool classroom, children draw and paint using a variety of traditional tools, such as pencils, crayons, markers, paints, and paintbrushes. With development and experience, young children gain increasing control over these tools, thereby producing increasingly more accurate representations of their thinking. These active learning activities enhance children’s eye-hand coordination, motor and cognitive development, and emergent literacy skills (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), paving the way for later academic learning, including writing.
Drawing and painting, precursors to formal writing, are representational forms of communication. As such, freehand drawing is a common activity through which preschoolers represent their thoughts and knowledge (Lancaster, 2007; Matthews, 1984). One way teachers assess young children’s development and learning is through careful examination of documentation of their work, including photographs, video clips, anecdotal records of children’s experiences, and authentic work samples, such as drawings and paintings. Children’s drawing of self-portraits is a common closely related activity that teachers in early education use as an indicator of developmental progress. This practice is consistent with formal assessment tools, which include the Draw-a-Man Test as a marker of development (Ter Laack, de Goede, & Aleva, 2005).
Technology and children’s drawing.
The use of computers for drawing with preschool children is not new. Matthews and Jessel’s (1993) study of the development of graphic representation in preschoolers 22–46 months using a computer paintbox (a mouse-driven computer program for electronic painting) revealed that children used similar techniques and went through a similar process for producing drawings, regardless of whether they were using electronic or traditional media. Much like when children are learning to use a marker or pencil for the first time, their initial challenge with the paintbox was to understand the movement and resultant manipulation of the mouse in relation to the product on the screen. They not only required instruction from adults, but also time and opportunity to explore the properties and potential of the new drawing medium. Therefore, computers provided another medium for preschool children to represent their thinking.
The use of computers in preschool has also been found to increase children’s interest and engagement in drawing. Trepanier-Street, Hong, and Bauer (2001) reported that children’s self-portrait drawings were sometimes more detailed and had a higher level of representation when constructed on the computer. They hypothesized that this may be because the computer requires different fine-motor skills than does drawing freehand. Certainly, the most common forms of computer software involve the use of a mouse and a different set of visual-spatial skills than writing on paper with pencil or markers. They also suggested that, for some children, the computer could be a more interesting tool and therefore might be able to maintain their interest longer and lead to the inclusion of more details in their drawings. However, these studies used mouse-driven programs for drawing, whereas the current interface with technology has evolved to include the use of a stylus, which is more similar to traditional writing and drawing experiences.
Evolving Technology for Classrooms
Technology found in K–12 schools is changing. In her review of technology, Garland (2006) indicated that portable computers are becoming increasingly common in schools. The inclusion of laptops, tablet PCs, Alpha Smarts, and Palm Pilots, which make up a larger share of school technology, is estimated at upwards of 48% (McLester, 2003), and a full 72% of elementary students have online access (Gray & Lewis, 2009). Computer-based technologies have evolved substantially over the past two decades, from point-and-click software designed to reinforce rote learning of concepts and skills to current multimedia authoring software (e.g., Kid Pix, Hyper Studio, and Kidspiration) that encourages children to represent ideas through both image selection and drawing with a keyboard or mouse control functions. More recently, new forms of stylus-interfaced or pentop technology that have become common in gaming systems are now available in laptop computers,known as tablet computers (van Mantgem, 2008). Although pentop computing may seem foreign to adults, Payton (2008) noted, “For younger students, the pen may be a much more comfortable and familiar input device than a keyboard. Indeed, introducing tablet PC pen functionality at the lowest grades can establish pen input as a normal part of the computing experience”.
Potential of tablet computers in the classroom
The introduction of tablet computers in educational settings has been primarily limited to middle and senior high school students. Barton and Collura (2003) found that tablets have advantages for improving the writing and organizational skills of high school students, because they are able to type or handwrite stories, and handwritten notes can also be converted to typed text. A case study by Borse and Sloan (2005) focusing on the fourth and eighth graders’ use of stylusinterfaced technology reported benefits such as high levels of student engagement, improved writing process, higher rates of homework completion, and fewer absences. Further, Schroeder (2004) found anecdotal support for improved student engagement with high school students due to the highly interactive nature of tablet computers.
More limited support for stylus-interfaced technology in education has also been reported for early elementary students. For example, the integration of technology into the 100 days of school curriculum for children in kindergarten through grade two resulted in increased student motivation in math, reading, and writing (Mouza, 2005). Teachers reported that this was particularly true for students who were not typically motivated by these activities. Chang, Mullen, and Stuve (2005) also reported that kindergartners using PDA technology exhibited high engagement and were easily able to manipulate the stylus for writing and drawing.
We found one small descriptive study involving very young children with tablet computers. Matthews and Seow (2007) looked at the symbolic representation of 12 children ages 2–11 years using electronic paint on tablet computers. The researchers videotaped children drawing with both tablet computers and traditional media (pencil, markers, paint, and paper) in naturalistic settings. Although they reported similarities in the children’s drawings using both types of media, they found that the stylus-interfaced technology was a superior tool for drawing when compared with the results of the earlier study by Matthews and Jessel (1993), which used mouse-driven electronic paint. However, this study did not provide specific information about the participants (e.g., how many within an age group, such as preschoolers) or a descriptive methodology, which limits our generalized knowledge about the viability of tablet technology with very young children. Consequently, although a few studies provide anecdotal support, the question remains of whether stylus-interfaced technology aligns with curriculum standards for early education.
Technology standards and tablets for young children.
An examination of
the National Educational Technology Standards (ISTE, 2007) reveals that stylus-interfaced technology holds potential as a learning tool and as a means to implement technology standards in early education. The relevant standards include: Creativity and Innovation, Communication and Collaboration, Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving and Decision-Making, as well as Technology Operations and Concepts (see Table 1, page 80). For example, Matthews and Seow (2007), in their study of children using tablet computers, found the stylus was superior to the mouse for children’s drawing. The stylus responded to pressure children applied, thereby yielding thicker lines and texture in their drawings. This allowed children to employ expressive action in their drawings to create dashes, dots, blobs, and spots, resulting in drawing expressions that they were unable to achieve with mouse-driven electronic paint (Matthews & Jessel, 1993). The tablet computer allowed children to create original works as a means of personal expression. Potentially the tablet will allow opportunities for children to collaborate with peers using digital media and transform their current knowledge to learning a new technology.
Although Berque (2008) asserts that education provides a natural forum for pen computing, and the future of stylus-interfaced computing looks bright, few empirical studies in the literature examine the use of stylus-interfaced technology, particularly with very young children. The studies we found that were conducted with tablet computers involved older students, were primarily based on observation or teacher-child reports, and lack strong empirical findings. Further, evidence of applying pentop technology with preschool-aged children is scant.
Creativity and Innovation: Students demonstrate creative thinking, construct knowledge, and develop innovative products and processes using technology.
Communication and Collaboration: Students use digital media and environments to communicate and work collaboratively, including at a distance, to support individual learning and contribute to the learning of others.
Research and Information Fluency: Students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate, and use information.
Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making: Students use critical thinking skills to plan and conduct research, manage projects, solve problems, and make informed decisions using appropriate digital tools and resources.
Digital Citizenship: Students understand human, cultural, and societal issues related to technology and practice legal and ethical behavior.
Technology Operations and Concepts: Students demonstrate a sound understanding of technology concepts, systems, and operations.
Although the available studies provided anecdotal support and guidance for the use of technology in early elementary settings, the potential of stylusinterfaced technology in early education settings with preschoolers has not yet been explored. Given that tablet computer technology allows a unique opportunity for children to be in control of their thinking and learning in a way that is more closely aligned with traditional paper and pencil media, investigation is warranted. The question remains of whether stylus-interfaced technology is a viable tool, and how it aligns with standards in early education.
Thus, the purpose of this study was to answer two research questions:
1. Is stylus-interfaced technology a viable tool for early education?
2. How can stylus-interfaced technology align with technology curriculum standards for early education?
We first investigated the ease with which preschool children become acclimated to the tablet technology. Next, we examined this technology’ effectiveness in keeping children engaged and motivated to draw as a means to implementing curriculum standards.
Method
This explanatory research study used a mixed-method approach. We gathered both quantitative and qualitative data to assess the viability of the tablet computer as a learning tool with preschool children. The quantitative component used a multiple single-subject research design (Creswell, 2002). The unit of analysis was the child; we examined individual interaction with the computer both during and after instruction. Next, we looked across classroom groups to determine if there were differences by age in the ways children worked with the computer. We used grounded theory in the qualitative research design to more deeply understand, through the experiences of the children and teachers, the process of using the tablet computer in a preschool setting
(Bogdan & Biklen 2007). To address concerns of internal validity, the data collection for each child occurred within a six-week timeframe to negate concerns of maturation. In addition, we confined child interaction with stylus-interfaced technology at school to the research study to limit concerns about the effect of outside learning on children’s response.
Early Childhood Setting
A university-based early childhood center located in the northeastern United States served as the setting. The second author had an administrative role for curriculum development at the school in addition to familiarity with children and teachers, and the first author had university affiliation but no direct relationship with the school. Children and teachers from three preschool classrooms serving children 3–6 years old participated in this study. The integration of technology was a feature of children’s daily learning experience in these classrooms. In addition to everyday access to computers, the light table, CD player, tape recorder, and overhead projector were also common parts of the classroom equipment. Digital photography and video were common techniques teachers used to document children’s learning. Tablet computers, however, were not a part of the classroom. Six out of seven teachers from the three classrooms indicated that they were daily users of computers, both for personal and teaching purposes. Although all teachers indicated that incorporating technology into young children’s learning experiences had high importance, there was variability among the teachers as to the age at which they felt computer technology should be introduced.
In this preschool, as in many others, teachers assess children’s developmental progress through analysis of work samples, including freehand drawings, writing samples, and self-portraits. Children draw self-portraits at three points during each year. The timing of this study coincided with the second round of self-portrait drawings that was occurring in their classrooms. Thus we explored the viability of the tablet computer as a technological tool for young children by engaging them in freehand drawing and self-portraits on the tablet to determine if it could be used as a medium for representing their thoughts and knowledge.
Subjects
Forty-one children between 3.1 and 6.3 years (mean = 4.9 years) enrolled in three classrooms participated in this study. Most (75.6%) were Caucasians; 12.2% were Asian; 4.9% were biracial; and 2.4% were Hispanic and African- American respectively (see Table 2, page 81). The overall consent rate from parents for participation was 89.1%.
The researchers distributed a background survey to parents (adapted from Chung & Walsh, 2006) soliciting information about demographics, the types of technology available in the home, and the patterns of children’s home computer use. The survey comprised 16 items that focused on the types of technology available in the home, children’s patterns of usage, and adult facilitation in computer use. The question formats included check-off and open-response items for length of time and frequency of use. The survey return rate was 88% (36 out of 41). Most children were from two-parent families with family incomes of $50,000 and above. On average, they spent 22.67 minutes (SD = 18.12 minutes, ranging from 0 to 60 minutes) per session at home playing games or using educational software. Although every family had a computer at home, only 30 of the children (73.2%) used them at home; 12 children (29.2%) have used touchscreen. Three-year-old children draw on tablet computers and stylus technologies such as Leap Pad and Game Boy. Even though two children (5%) had a tablet computer in the home, they were very infrequent, non-independent users of this equipment.
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